ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES OF ERADICATING SLUMS

INTRODUCTION

There are different approaches to eradicate slums. These include slum clearance, and urban renewal. However, there are search for new approaches because of the failure of these two approaches. The new approaches include community self-help participation, urban reform approach, self-help housing and urban poverty reduction approach.

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this unit are:

• Examine other approaches of slums eradication. 
• The review of the achievements of the approaches in fulfilling the expected results. 

Alternative approaches of eradicating slums

There are other approaches apart from slum clearance and urban renewal that are available in eradicating slums. These approaches have been adopted in some countries and we shall be examining these approaches and their performance in eradicating slums.

1. Urban Reform Approach :Institutional difficulties to some scholars in the field of urban planning are one of the impedimental factors towards eliminating slums and other urban planning problems. Lichfield in his contribution identified that even in the new towns of England, which were planned comprehensively, there were always imbalances. The rigidities and flexibilities of the institutional structure, instead of the facilities such as houses, schools etc, happening together, there was always imbalances resulting from institutional difficulties when urban renewal are to be executed. Hardoy (1975) came up with the concept of urban reform. This concept according to him extends beyond simple changes in the urban and suburban land tenure system and its consequences on urban land uses. It also includes new system of urban government and public investment and new way of popular participation. It also involves a change in the power structure that controls decisions affecting the dynamics of urban growth and internal structure of cities. Urban reform is a long-term policy with the main objective of removing the speculative tendencies that define the line of physical growth in cities and of an urban ecology based on class discrimination, structural urban reform is impossible without changes in the power structure, and the inequalities of urban land distribution should be eradicated totally. Urban reform approach to urban planning requires a gradual process, and it involves setting up of institutions, human and financial resources, and technology to plan and build cities, but prior to this process appropriate legislation should be enacted. Such legislation provisions include realistic ordinances specifying health safety and sanitary standards for housing etc there should be constitutional provision for standards of infrastructure and facilities required for good living. 
2.  Community self-help improvement approach :This approach may be regarded as upgrading with this, instead of relying on the government to single handedly take up slum clearance, public and the slums dwellers may be allowed to take up the project. Alger in 1964 in his write up tagged “instead of urban renewal” makes various suggestions on how to handle slum clearance. A community can undertake many projects including slum clearance, by raising funds through taxes. For instance, in the United States the public money spent on housing through urban renewal in 1940s and 1950s did not benefit the poor citizens. Therefore, it was suggested that fund should be raised independently to finance such projects, especially urban renewal. 

The following steps are very important for community improvement without having to wait for government aid:

1. Establishing realistic ordinances specifying, safety and sanitary standards for housing. 
2. Rehabilitating substandard housing, at the expense of property owners, through firm enforcement of ordinances; 
3. Demolishing those slum structures which are unfit for rehabilitation, at the expense of property owners, again through firm enforcement of city ordinance; 
4. Establishing systematic public improvements in schools, streets, parks, sewers and in such municipal services such as refuse collection, traffic and other facilities;
5. Establishing more reliable, attractive and convenient neighbourhood environment by re-planning, re-zoning, cleared and long standing vacant sites; 
6. Acquiring and removing structures and uses of land which might delay, obstruct or hinder carrying out the programme. 
7. Attracting investment in new construction as well as in rehabilitation and modernization by the application of specific government (national) income tax incentives; 
8. Eliciting the cooperation of local financial institutions in the conservative programme 

Improving credit facilities for cities through insurance premium.

If the above stated steps are followed without politicizing, there is tendency to achieve the target goal. The approach would therefore make the local problems within each area solved in its own way, without government direct participation. Community self-help improvement may be regarded as upgrading.

Self-help housing approach

Inability of the capitalist third world to build sufficient houses to remove spontaneous housing, and other sub-standard and illegal settlements, there has been a shift from old slum clearance system to a kind of self-help policy, regarded as site-and –services and upgrading programmes. This policy rest on the fact that land should be provided with adequate services and facilities such as roads, water, sewage disposal, electricity and other essential facilities where the actual building of accommodation should be left for the people themselves. The existing slum areas are expected to be demolished and
upgraded with layout design.

The government was to encourage mortgage investments through credits and loan facilities, and construction advice that will not go beyond the family budget. Many literatures point to the success of self-help approach to slum upgrading and housing stock improvement. Since 1974, there have been 80 proposed or completed sites and services scheme in 27 developing countries and the schemes have been parts of the national development plans for 13 countries such include India, Pakistan, Iran, Chile and Turkey.

However, Koenigsberger (1986) regards sites and services as division of roles and cost between the public and individual residents which is regarded as a major breakthrough. The programme has been launched all over the world since 1960 through the World bank loan as one of the major of adding to housing stock and bridge the wide gap between the rich and the urban poor. Nigeria since early 1980s has been investing on sites and services scheme, mostly in the suburbs of major towns.

The programme of sites and services and upgrading has recorded some failure. However, most of these are attributed to poor administration, due in part to enthusiasm on the part of the government. Righter (1975) identified two criticisms towards the programme, one is that is a cover up for non action by government on critical issues such as urban reform.

Two, is the belief that if it becomes widespread it will re-create the difficulties which it aims to conquer. Since the government has not been so serious about the programme, it has not been very happy one. Due to the political crisis that bedeviled the country since mid-1980s, Nigeria has not been able to record a meaningful success from the programme until 2005 when the federal government decided to revisit the policy, especially at the federal capital Abuja. In 2003, Ogun state re-introduced the policy in conjunction with other housing programmes. Private sectors were encouraged to participate and the state government was to make land available.

Urban poverty reduction approach

The strategy towards improving slum area and residents life was introduced in Indian urban are in 1986 according to Barrett and Beardmore (2000). The policy was because poverty reduction through public actions using participation process is capable in empowering the poor and protecting them from economic shocks and personal violence (security).

The major aim of urban poverty reduction as executed in India cities was to eradicate poverty through social facilities and services and infrastructure provision. The provision of these was regarded as anti-poverty. Health and education were considered critical measures of non-monetary dimensions of welfare as well as important inputs into an individual’s earning potential.

It was identified that there was inequality in the distribution of health and education. Ill health and low level of education were identified to be concentrated among the lower income groups in the urban area. Under the Indian poverty reduction approach, slum improvement project was designed and implemented. The execution of the projects was in collaboration with international agencies. The projects were not poverty reduction per se but were variously slated for different cities.

1. Improve the quality of life of the slum residents (designed for Hyderabad slum improvement project in 1989-1998)
2. Increase the standards of health, education, and community life in the slums, via an improved physical infrastructure and an enhanced level of service (designed for Visalshapathan slum improvement project in 1988-1996). 
3. Sustainable improvements in the standards of health, education, shelter, environment and community life and increased income-earning potential of people living in the slums (designed for Vijayawada slum improvement project in 1989-1998). 

In order to execute the projects, there was institutional development. Slum improvement project neighbourhood communities were formed as a mechanism for promoting the slums residents participation in projects planning and execution, and a potential mechanism for later maintenance and sustainability of assets. For instance, Hyderabad Municipal Corporation was established to execute project under slum improvement project. The slum improvements projects introduced in Indian urban settlements such as those mentioned above as well as Indore and Calcutta were assessed between 1996 and 1997. It was found out that there has been a significant impact of the projects on the quality of life of slum residents, both poor and non poor. It also brought about significant socio-attitudinal change, improving the image of slum areas within the city and integrating them into social and political economy. There was assessment of the project success by categorizing poverty into three main dimensions (survival, security, and quality of life).


Infrastructure provision brought indirect social and economic development, particularly to women. It increased home-based economic activities, increased mobility and improved security. There was significant impact on health and reduced incidence of illness, which related to unhygienic living environment. Roads in particular, stimulated investment and increased social interaction. Despite the success of slum improvement projects in transforming slum areas, there are some constraints identified from the execution. The first one is institutional constraint. If the institutional culture of government is dominated by administration and engineering, there is tendency for community development to become marginalized. Similarly, government may not be the most appropriate agency to tackle the political and social change elements of community organization. Another is political constraint, where party politics can have a major influence on project implement at different levels. The third one is community constraint.

In a situation where neighbourhood committee is inactive, there is tendency for nothing much to be achieved, due to lack of interest or capacity. Similarly, a faction of the committee may dominate and capture the resources of the community, especially the rich. The government in the implementation of slum implementation projects should take cognizance of these constraints.

Rent control approach

The essence of this policy was to minimize capitalistic nature of accommodation distribution to reduce rent cost. Rent control is one of the approaches to improving conditions of the poor, since it is believed that poverty is the root of sub-standard houses and illegal settlement development in the third world cities. However, experience has shown that the policy has not been successful. Cornelius (1975) observed that the 1942 Mexico city rent control only hastened the deterioration of the central city tenements, whose owners had little incentive to invest in their upkeep.

In case of Nigeria, Okpala (1985) argued that for discrete and selective use of the rent control instrument to increase housing supply would lower rents naturally and help to avoid penalizing those the rent law intends to help. However, the consequence would be lower investment in housing development and maintenance. Vagale (1985) concluded that rent control policy adversely affect or slow down private investment into housing meant for the low-income families and retards the rate of construction of dwellings.

Therefore, in adopting rent control as a measure to address urban poor housing problem, government should take economic situation at hand as a prevailing factor. Otherwise incentives to housing industry should be considered as alternative to economic factor. Rent control can only be implemented as a temporary measure while increase in supply of housing is provided in order to achieve the expected result.

New town development approach

New town development in the world is not a recent phenomenon. It can be traced back to early urban civilization especially of Ancient Greek and Roman Empires. During this period, towns were built for different purposes; some were built for military purpose, while some were built for commercial or administrative purposes. Since the 18th century, during the industrial revolution, the purpose took new shape of controlling urbanization as well as to ameliorate health problems emanated from rapid incidence of industrialization.


New town has been described in various ways. It may be described as an attempt to decentralize population and industry, with the aim of building new health environment, with optimum size, which would provide most of the social amenities of urban life. In addition, it is a complete small city with dwellings, jobs and a full complement of community facilities, with a fixed area and population, held firmly by an encircling green belt.

The United States advisory commission, on inter-governmental relations described a new town as an independent, relatively self-contained, pre-planned community of a size large enough to support a range of housing types and to provide economic opportunities within its borders for its residents. The present idea of new town was derived from the garden city concept of Ebenezer Howard. The following are therefore the features of a new town, when all its descriptions are considered:

1. It must be a town that is specifically designed 
2. It must be self-sustained in term of social facilities 
3. It must be self-sustained in terms of employment opportunities 
4. It must be designed to accommodate a specific and projected figure of population 
5. It must be large enough to support and balance range of public facilities, social and cultural opportunities 
6.  It must be surrounded by a green belt of open space. 

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

• Mention the alternative approaches to slum eradication. 

CONCLUSION

We have been able to examine other approaches to slum eradication apart from total slum clearance and urban renewal. This has given a comprehensive view of all approaches which will enable better understanding and application in eradicating slums.